Hasan Almarzooq | Unitary National Democratic Assemblage (Kingdom of Bahrain)
Introduction
The labor movement in Bahrain stands as one of the oldest and most deeply rooted trade union movements in the Arabian Gulf region—if not the oldest. Since the discovery of oil in 1932, Bahraini workers have emerged as a driving force for social and political change, demanding their legitimate rights to organize themselves in unions and improve their living and working conditions. This movement has been closely intertwined with the national struggle against British presence, with the March 1965 uprising marking a pivotal turning point in modern Bahraini history, where labor demands merged with national aspirations for independence and freedom. So how did this movement emerge? What are the key milestones in its journey? And what challenges does it face in the 21st century?
The Early Roots: From the Discovery of Oil to the 1965 Uprising
Bahrain witnessed a major economic transformation following the discovery of oil in 1932, which reshaped occupational patterns and shifted the economic focus of workers. However, labor demands were not a product of that era alone; their roots stretch back to before the oil discovery, with the 1919 “Pearl Divers’ Revolt” demanding improved living and working conditions. By 1938, demands erupted from the workers of the Sitra oil tanks at BAPCO, demands that remained unchanged for many years.
Nevertheless, the true beginning of the organized labor movement dates back to the 1950s, when unions played a pivotal role in Bahrain’s national movement. On February 15, 1955, the first left-wing party in the Arab Gulf states was established—the National Liberation Front—Bahrain, which later led the 1965 uprising.
The March 1965 Uprising: The Spark That Changed the Course of History
On the morning of March 5, 1965, in the courtyard of Al-Hidaya Al-Khalifiya Boys’ School in the city of Muharraq, the first cries of popular anger rang out. The immediate trigger for the uprising was the decision by the Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO) to lay off hundreds of Bahraini workers, with plans to let go of approximately 1,500 more.
The protests were not limited to workers alone but extended to include secondary school students who rallied in solidarity with the workers, with the main confrontations taking place with students and within school grounds. Over several weeks, most cities, villages, and areas of Bahrain became stages for popular protests. Numerous people died in violent clashes between demonstrators and police.
The workers and protesters put forward clear demands, most notably the recognition of workers’ trade union rights, the repeal of the Emergency Law issued in 1956, and an end to political persecution of opposition figures. The uprising was led by a coalition of leftist forces, including the Popular Front for the Liberation of Bahrain and the National Liberation Front—Bahrain, calling for an end to the British presence in Bahrain.
However, the Bahraini government, backed by British authorities, quickly moved to suppress the movement. In the summer of 1965, military forces and police were deployed to disperse the protests, and the leaders of the strike were either arrested or exiled. Despite the crackdown, the uprising left a profound impact on national and labor consciousness and established a new phase of struggle.
The Post-Uprising Phase: Ongoing Struggle Toward Independence
Despite the suppression of the 1965 uprising, the labor movement did not cease. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Bahrain witnessed a new wave of labor strikes. In 1968, electricity workers went on strike demanding the formation of trade unions, improved working conditions, and higher wages. In November 1970, workers at Gulf Air, the Aluminum Bahrain company (ALBA), and the Sitra Cable Factory carried out a series of strikes. In March 1972, Bahrain saw new strikes at Gulf Air and Salmaniya Medical Complex.
The labor movement, alongside the national movement, contributed to accelerating the path to independence. The National Liberation Front led the labor movement in the early 1970s, which helped achieve Bahrain’s independence in 1971 and the enactment of its first constitution and first parliament in 1973. However, these gains did not last long; in the spring of 1974, the labor movement suffered a severe blow when authorities suppressed strikes and weakened the workers’ power.
The 21st Century: An Era of Reforms and New Challenges
The year 2002 marked a major turning point in the history of the Bahraini trade union movement. On September 24, 2002, Royal Decree No. 33 of 2002 was issued, enacting the Trade Unions Law, which granted workers the right to unionize. This law ushered in a new era in the history of labor movements in Bahrain.
Following this law, the General Federation of Bahrain Trade Unions was established, which quickly became one of the most dynamic trade union movements in the region. The Federation held its founding conference in January 2004, and in December of the same year, it became the first organization in the Gulf to join the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU). This represented international recognition of the positive development Bahrain had achieved in the field of labor rights, with the ICFTU describing Bahrain as a “bright spot in a bleak landscape of persistent labor rights violations in the Middle East.”
In October 2006, King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa signed a law prohibiting the dismissal of workers due to their trade union activities and requiring courts to reinstate and compensate any worker proven to have been penalized for exercising their trade union rights. This step came in response to criticism from the ICFTU regarding the dismissal of the head of the Gulf Air workers’ union in July 2005.
However, these reforms faced major obstacles. Following the popular protests that swept Bahrain in 2011, the trade union movement suffered a severe setback, as the period of relative freedom came to an abrupt end. In 2012, a split occurred within the labor movement, leading to the establishment of the “Free Federation of Bahrain Trade Unions”—a division that experts and unionists in the General Federation viewed as an attempt to weaken the labor movement. Additionally, a decree was issued in 2012 allowing for multiple unions, which was seen as targeting the General Federation with the aim of dividing the union class.
Challenges of the 21st Century
Today, the labor movement in Bahrain faces a host of serious challenges that threaten its achievements and raise existential questions about its future:
First: The Unemployment Crisis and Preference for Foreign Labor. Bahraini citizens suffer from worsening unemployment, as employers tend to prefer cheap foreign labor over national workers. The number of migrant workers in Bahrain has risen to approximately 680,000 over the past two decades. Unemployed individuals have organized sit-in protests against this discrimination, even staging hunger strikes in some instances.
Second: The Conditions of Migrant Workers. Migrant workers constitute about 60% of Bahrain’s workforce, and they face severe violations, including non-payment or delayed payment of wages, excessively long working hours, and lack of social protection. A union study has shown that unpaid wages account for 80% of complaints handled by the wage protection system. Migrant workers, especially in the construction sector, also endure extremely difficult financial conditions. In a report released in 2026, Human Rights Watch affirmed that Bahraini authorities excluded migrant workers from the emergency wage support program during the regional conflict, despite their years of contributions to the emergency fund.
Third: Restrictions on Trade Union Freedoms. Despite the legal framework allowing for the formation of unions, the labor movement faces significant restrictions. Since 2011, authorities have banned workers from demonstrating on International Workers’ Day, despite the General Federation formally submitting a request for a permit to demonstrate. Recent years have also witnessed cases of arbitrary dismissal of workers participating in union activities or peaceful protests, and unionists have faced pressure to form unions under government supervision.
Fourth: Economic and Structural Challenges. Bahrain’s labor market faces deep structural challenges, as the public sector can no longer absorb approximately 36% of the Bahraini workforce as it did in 2002. Unions warn of growing uncertainty in the labor market, widening wage gaps, rising unemployment and poverty rates, and the spread of informal, unprotected work.
Fifth: Exclusion of Certain Worker Categories from Protection. Domestic workers and workers in some sectors remain excluded from labor legislation, depriving them of the right to join unions and enjoy legal protection. However, there is a glimmer of hope represented by the establishment of the first domestic workers’ union in Bahrain and the entire Arab Gulf region in June 2023.
Conclusion
The history of the labor movement in Bahrain is a history of continuous struggle spanning over a century—from the 1919 “Pearl Divers’ Revolt,” through the glorious March 1965 uprising that marked a defining milestone in the journey of independence and national liberation, to the era of trade union reforms in the 21st century. Despite the gains achieved, the labor movement still faces serious challenges that threaten its existence and hard-won achievements. From the unemployment crisis and preference for foreign labor, to the dire conditions of migrant workers, to restrictions on trade union freedoms and internal divisions—the labor movement faces a true test of its ability to endure and adapt.
The greatest hope rests on the labor movement’s ability to restore its unity and renew its struggle-based discourse, keeping pace with the changes of the times and protecting the rights of all workers—both Bahrainis and migrants—within a just system that guarantees human dignity and social justice. Just as the March 1965 uprising was a starting point toward freedom and independence, the labor movement today remains a fundamental pillar in building a more just and dignified future for all.
